Motivation: The identification of transcription factor (TF) binding sites and the regulatory circuitry that they define is currently an area of intense research. Data from whole-genome chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP-chip), whole-genome expression microarrays, and sequencing of multiple closely related genomes have all proven useful. By and large, existing methods treat the interpretation of functional data as a classification problem (between bound and unbound DNA), and the analysis of comparative data as a problem of local alignment (to recover phylogenetic footprints of presumably functional elements). Both of these approaches suffer from the inability to model and detect low-affinity binding sites, which have recently been shown to be abundant and functional.
Results: We have developed a method that discovers functional regulatory targets of TFs by predicting the total affinity of each promoter for those factors and then comparing that affinity across orthologous promoters in closely related species. At each promoter, we consider the minimum affinity among orthologs to be the fraction of the affinity that is functional. Because we calculate the affinity of the entire promoter, our method is independent of local alignment. By comparing with functional annotation information and gene expression data in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we have validated that this biophysically motivated use of evolutionary conservation gives rise to dramatic improvement in prediction of regulatory connectivity and factor-factor interactions compared to the use of a single genome. We propose novel biological functions for several yeast TFs, including the factors Snt2 and Stb4, for which no function has been reported. Our affinity-based approach towards comparative genomics may allow a more quantitative analysis of the principles governing the evolution of non-coding DNA.
Availability: The MatrixREDUCE software package is available from http://www.bussemakerlab.org/software/MatrixREDUCE.
Supplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
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Evidence ID | Analyze ID | Gene/Complex | Systematic Name/Complex Accession | Qualifier | Gene Ontology Term ID | Gene Ontology Term | Aspect | Annotation Extension | Evidence | Method | Source | Assigned On | Reference |
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Evidence ID | Analyze ID | Gene | Gene Systematic Name | Phenotype | Experiment Type | Experiment Type Category | Mutant Information | Strain Background | Chemical | Details | Reference |
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Evidence ID | Analyze ID | Gene | Gene Systematic Name | Disease Ontology Term | Disease Ontology Term ID | Qualifier | Evidence | Method | Source | Assigned On | Reference |
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Evidence ID | Analyze ID | Regulator | Regulator Systematic Name | Target | Target Systematic Name | Direction | Regulation of | Happens During | Regulator Type | Direction | Regulation Of | Happens During | Method | Evidence | Strain Background | Reference |
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Site | Modification | Modifier | Source | Reference |
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Evidence ID | Analyze ID | Interactor | Interactor Systematic Name | Interactor | Interactor Systematic Name | Allele | Assay | Annotation | Action | Phenotype | SGA score | P-value | Source | Reference | Note |
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Evidence ID | Analyze ID | Interactor | Interactor Systematic Name | Interactor | Interactor Systematic Name | Assay | Annotation | Action | Modification | Source | Reference | Note |
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Complement ID | Locus ID | Gene | Species | Gene ID | Strain background | Direction | Details | Source | Reference |
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Evidence ID | Analyze ID | Dataset | Description | Keywords | Number of Conditions | Reference |
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Evidence ID | Analyze ID | File | Description |
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