about autophagy

Autophagy is a highly conserved eukaryotic pathway for sequestering and transporting bulk cytoplasm, including proteins and organelle material, to the lysosome for degradation (reviewed in 9). Upon starvation for nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and various amino acids, or upon endoplasmic reticulum stress, cells initiate formation of a double-membrane vesicle, termed an autophagosome, that mediates this process (10, 11, reviewed in 12). Approximately 30 autophagy-related (Atg) proteins have been identified in S. cerevisiae, 17 of which are essential for formation of the autophagosome (reviewed in 13). Null mutations in most of these genes prevent induction of autophagy, and cells do not survive nutrient starvation; however, these mutants are viable in rich medium. Some of the Atg proteins are also involved in a constitutive biosynthetic process termed the cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting (Cvt) pathway, which uses autophagosomal-like vesicles for selective transport of hydrolases aminopeptidase I (Lap4p) and alpha-mannosidase (Ams1p) to the vacuole (2, 14).

Autophagy proceeds via a multistep pathway (a summary diagram (download pdf) kindly provided by Dan Klionsky). First, nutrient availability is sensed by the TORC1 complex and also cooperatively by protein kinase A and Sch9p (15, 16). Second, signals generated by the sensors are transmitted to the autophagosome-generating machinery comprised of the 17 Atg gene products. These 17 proteins collectively form the pre-autophagosomal structure/phagophore assembly site (PAS). The PAS generates an isolation membrane (IM), which expands and eventually fuses along the edges to complete autophagosome formation. At the vacuole the outer membrane of the autophagosome fuses with the vacuolar membrane and autophagic bodies are released, disintegrated, and their contents degraded for reuse in biosynthesis (17 and reviewed in 13).

about the Cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting (Cvt) pathway

Cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting (Cvt) is a constitutive and specific form of autophagy that uses autophagosomal-like vesicles for selective transport of hydrolases aminopeptidase I (Lap4p) and alpha-mannosidase (Ams1p) to the vacuole (2, 14). Unlike autophagy, which is primarily a catabolic process, Cvt is a biosynthetic process. Like autophagosomes, Cvt vesicles form at a structure known as the phagophore assembly site (PAS) (also called the pre-autophagosomal structure). The PAS structure generates an isolation membrane (IM), which expands and eventually fuses along the edges to complete vesicle formation. At the vacuole, the outer membrane of the Cvt vesicle fuses with the vacuolar membrane, the vesicle is degraded, and the cargos are released and processed into their mature forms by vacuolar peptidases (reviewed in 18). The Cvt pathway has not been observed outside of yeast, and enzymes specifically involved in this pathway are not well conserved in other organisms (19 and references therein).

about ATG14

ATG14 encodes the autophagy-specific subunit of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) 3-kinase complex I (5). Other members of this complex include Vps30p; the PtdIns 3-kinase Vps34p; and Vps15p, a regulatory kinase that tethers the complexes to membranes and activates Vps34p activity. Atg14p acts as a connector between Vps30p and the rest of the complex and is responsible for targeting the entire complex to the PAS (20 and references therein, and reviewed in 21). Atg14p is also required for proper localization of Atg2p, Atg8p and the Atg5p-Atg12p.Atg16p complex to the PAS (22, 7). The PAS localization of Atg14p is itself dependent on other autophagy proteins such as Atg9p, Atg13p, and Atg17p (7).

The expression of ATG14 is induced >20-fold upon nitrogen starvation or rapamycin treatment via regulation by the GATA transcription factor Gln3p (23). However, based on overexpression experiments, while ATG14 transcriptional regulation contributes to the control of autophagy, induction of ATG14 transcription is not sufficient to induce autophagy under starvation conditions (23). atg14 mutants are defective in autophagy, the Cvt pathway, sporulation, and survival under starvation conditions (3, 24). Atg14p homologs have been identified among close relatives of S. cerevisiae and in humans (Barkor), but the sequence identity between homologs is extremely low (19, 8).

about autophagy nomenclature

The initial identification of factors involved in autophagy was carried out by several independent labs, which led to a proliferation of nomenclature for the genes and gene products involved. The differing gene name acronyms from these groups included APG, AUT, CVT, GSA, PAG, PAZ, and PDD (1 and references therein). A concerted effort was made in 2003 by the scientists working in the field to unify the nomenclature for these genes, and "AuTophaGy-related" genes are now denoted by the letters ATG (1). In addition to the ATG gene names that have been assigned to S. cerevisiae proteins and their orthologs, several ATG gene names, including ATG25, ATG28, and ATG30, have been used to designate proteins in other ascomycete yeast species for which there is no identifiable equivalent in S. cerevisiae (19, 25).

Last updated: 2008-02-08